Chinese architecture has gained the greatest achievements in palatial and capital city plans in ancient times, giving prominence to the supremacy of authoritarianism and strict obsession of hierarchy, which are obviously different from the still higher achievements gained by European, Islamic or ancient Indian architecture in temple, church, mosque and other religious structures. The palace had its roots in the Xia Dynasty and reached its pinnacle in the Sui and Tang dynasties and became even more exquisite in the Qing Dynasty. The pattern of the complete capital city plan had been formed in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Importance was paid to standard rule and symmetry, giving prominence to the pattern of the imperial palace. In the Spring and Autumn Warring States Periodwhen "courtesy disintegrated and music destroyed", the standardized pattern was somewhat damaged. But the Han Dynastybegan to restore the standard rule and this process was completed in the Sui and Tang dynasties, and was enriched during the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Chang'an (presentXi'an), capital of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Dadu of Yuan Dynasty and Beijing of the Ming and Qing dynasties are the three capitals enjoying the highest reputation in Chinese history.
China's patriarchal and ethical concepts also influenced almost all structural types. For instance, the quasi-religious architectural altars and temples for worshipping deity and wise men and sages, as well as imperial mausoleums developed against the cultural backgrounds where in particular emphasis was placed on blood and clan relationship, and importance was attached to such concepts as "carefully attending to the funeral rites of parents and following them when gone with due sacrifices" and "taking death as life". They were structural types almost unique to China, their grand scale and their solemn and respectful atmosphere became the focus of attention.
Buddhismfrom India was the main religion prevailing in China, and Buddhist structures such as temples and pagodas emerged. But although subjected to Indian influence in the early stages, they quickly began the process of becoming Chinese-style structures, giving expression to the esthetic standards and cultural character of the Chinese, filled with the atmosphere of tranquility, peace and introversion, completely different from the extroverted, turbulent atmosphere of Western religious structures. Taoism is the indigenous religion of China, and Taoist temples, like Buddhist ones, have a serene charm. The pagoda occupies an important position in the history of China's architectural art, and find seven more distinctive expressions in terms of diverse types, rich forms, and the character of times and regions.
The Chinese cultural spirit, based on its high coordination with nature, shows ardent love and respect for nature. Structures seem to be an organic component of nature and are different from other architectural systems which place more emphasis on the contrast between artificiality and nature. This finds visible reflection in various types of Chinese structures, such as the selection and layout of sites for cities, villages, towns, tombs or residences. They find outstanding expression in garden sand belong to a natural type, different from European or Islamic geometric gardens. Chinese gardensare mainly imperial and private gardens. The latter give more expressions to the esthetic state of mind of literati and scholars. Existing gardens have the highest accomplishments in regions south of the Yangtze River, a fresh, beautiful and refined style and exquisite and ingenious technique; the former are developed mostly unearth China, and the largest existing concentration is in the Beijing area, which are huge in scale and have a beautiful style. Chinese gardens enjoy a high reputation in the world and are acclaimed as "mother of world gardens", by Europeans.
A variety of folk public structures, such as ancestral halls, temples wise men, temples of gods, guild halls, academies of classical learning and landscape towers and pavilions are mostly extant structures from Ming and Qing dynasties and are all, without exception, deeply influenced by the traditional cultural spirit. Residences are especially noteworthy. They not only vary in types and are diverse in forms, but can also face ordinary life more directly and vividly. The group culture and state of mind embodied in them are particularly sincere and simple. The regional features reflected in them are more outstanding. The beauty of their unique simplicity sometimes does not lie in the brilliant structure.
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